Some instruments of torture, like the rack, were real. Others were likely made up to help perpetuate the myth of the medieval ‘Dark Ages.’

Throughout history, people have used torture devices to punish their enemies and those accused of crimes. They’ve also used torture as a means to elicit confessions or convince a victim to give up other people’s names, despite the fact that torture doesn’t produce reliable information. (This is not a new finding; it’s something even Napoleon Bonaparte observed.)

Yet sometimes, people looking toward the past have let their imaginations run away with them when it comes to torture. Ancient Greek historians have passed down some fantastic tales that they may not have intended readers to take literally.

In addition, people in the modern era have accused medieval Europeans of using gruesome torture devices that probably didn’t exist at the time, perpetuating the myth of a less-than-civilized so-called “Dark Ages.” Here are some famous torture devices from history, both real and legendary.

The Brazen Bull

The brazen bull is an ancient mythical torture device supposedly used by Phalaris, a tyrant who ruled a part of Sicily in the 6th century BCE. It consisted of a life-size bronze bull that was hollow on the inside and had a door on the outside. The torturer would place a victim inside and light a fire under the bull. The fire would roast the victim to death, while an acoustic system on the bull made the victim’s screams sound like bull noises to those on the outside.

The story of Phalaris and the brazen bull comes from the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, who lived about 500 years after these events had supposedly taken place. The story, which Italian poet and philosopher Dante referenced in the Inferno, is likely a myth or at least highly embellished.